CHAPTER SIX
THE DEVELOPMENT
OF TWELVER- SHIISM
If we take a close
look of the History of Shiism in the second and third centuries, and the
sympathy and response of the Shiites to the various revolts that were led by
leaders of the Ahl al-Bayt, like the revolt of Imam Zayd and his son, Yahya and
his son, Isa, as well as the revolt of Muhammad bin Abdullah (Dhu al-Nafs
al-Zakiyyah) and his brother Ibrahim, so also the revolt of Hussain Shahid Fakh
and that of Muhammad bin Qasim and others, we will find that the general Shiite
populace gather around the members of the Ahl al-Bayt without limiting the
leadership (Imamate) to one particular lineage, or believing in a divine text
on anyone of them, talkless of confining it to the children of Hassan or Hussain
or to a vertical hereditary form till the day of Resurrection. We would also find that the Shiites generally
do not subscribe to the theory of Divine Imamate, which was believed by some
theologians secretly, and attributed to the members of the Ahl al-Bayt who were
constantly dissociating themselves from it in reality and in the open.
If we would also
focus our attention on the Imamate heritage during those two centuries (2nd
–3rd) we will find that the Imamate theory is open and extended to
the day of Resurrection, and that it was not limited to a particuar number of
Imams or limited to a certain period of time. Even though the Imamate reached
an impasse at the time of the death of Imam Hassan Askari, in the year 260 A.H,
with no issue to succeed him, and without pointing to anyone to be the Imam
after him, those who believe in the existence of a hidden son for him in the
beginning, believe that the Imamate will continue in the children of that
hidden son till the day of Judgement. They did not believe in the beginning
that he was the last Imam, or that the Imams were only twelve (12).
We have cited in the
previous chapter, various traditions that pointed to the continuity of the
Imamate in the children and grandchildren, till the day of Resurrection. There
are in the Shiite heritage tens, nay hundreds of such narrations that emphasize
and confirm the continuity of the Imamate to the day of Resurrection. This
supports the fact that the theory of Imamate was never limited to particular
persons during the second and the third centuries of Hijrah.
Anyone who observes
those popular narrations that point to the extension of the Imamate to the day
of Judgment, will find that they are absolute, general and intended to be so,
i.e there is no limitations to them. They express the divine Imamate theory,
which is parallel to the theory of Shura,that also extends to the day of
Resurrection. That was the situation in its first stages of inception, before
reaching an impasse.
Based on the fact
that the theory of Imamate in its initial days, extends the principle of the
Imamate to the day of Resurrection, and was not limited to a partcular number,
the doctrine claims that:
‘ Text was given
only in the right of Imam Ali, and that the texts for subsequent Imams issue
from the Imam just preceeding the new Imam, till the day of Resurrection. (1)
The theory also
admitted the non-existence of clear texts from some of the Imams to those after
them. It holds, in this regard, to ordinary wills and considers it as evidences
on the Imamate (of the concerned). When there were not even ordinary wills for
some of the Imams from their fathers, like Imam Sajjad, or it was combined for
a number of brothers, it would be claimed that the evidence on the Imamate (in
those cases) were miracles, and the knowledge of the Unseen; or being the elder
or more knowledgeable; or the possession of the sword of the Messenger of Allah
(peace be upon him).
In fact several
narrations point to the fact that the Imams themselves do not know that they
are Imams, or the persons to succeed them, till just moments before their
death, talkless of the Imamate Shiites (the masses) , who used to be confused
or perplexed or differed among themselves after the death of each Imam. They
used to implore all the Imams to appoint those to succeed them, and to name
them clearly so that they will not die without knowing the new Imam. They
several times became confused and perplexed. (2)
There are many other
traditions, mentioned by Al-Hur al-Amili, Kulayni and Saffar, which discussed
the issue of identifying the new Imam, by means of a number of features, like
being the elder, or purity of birth, good upbringing, or not living a playful
and wasteful youth, or due to a clear will or virtue or knowledge of the
Unseen, or calmness, chastity and tranquility (3)
All this points to the continuity of the
Imamate to the day of Resurrection in its initial stage, and its not being tied
to any particular number.
THE BIRTH OF THE TWELVER- IMAM THEORY
In view of the
Imamate theory reaching an impasse after the death of Imam Hassan Askari
without an apparent issue, and the claim of his having a covert son in
occultation, and his non-appearance for a very long period of time…. the fourth
century of Hijrah witnessed a new development in the Imamate theory i.e. the
emergence of Twelver-Imam (Ithna Ashriyyah) theory It was a theory that emerged
especially among the Musawites and the extremist wing that believes strongly in
the law of vertical heredity, and strongly does not accept anything apart from
that. That wing believes in the existence of a wing believes in the existence
of a pre-determined list of names of the Imams from the Prophet of Allah (peace
be upon him) comprising of (12) twelve names, being: Ali, Hassan Hussain, Ali bin Hussain , Muhammad bin
Ali, Jafar bin Muhammad, Musa bin Ja’far, Ali bin Muhammad and Hassan bin Ali
and that the last of them, Muhammad bin Hassan Askari. This was aimed at
establishing the existence of the twelfth Imam—Muhammad bin Hassan Askari whose
existence is doubted by and discussed seriously in the ranks of the Imamate
Shiites.
The Twelver-Imam
theory sought support from the Hadiths of the Sunnis reported by Bukhari and
Muslim on the occurrence of ‘Haraj’ (Killings) and mischief after the twelfth
Caliph or Imam. And in order that the number of the previous Imams be
compatible with these narrations, the Twelver-Imam Shiites also resorted to
deleting the names of Imam Zayd, Imam Abdullah Al-Aftah and Imam Ahmad bin
Musa, whose Imamates were believed by many Imamate Shiites (Fathites). As they
also denied the Imamate of Ja’far bin Ali Hadi, and they added instead the name
of Imam Muhammad bin Hassan Askari. They prepared a new list of nine (9) names
from the children of Hussain, one after the other. They said: ‘ all these Imams
were categorically mentioned by the Prophet (peace be upon him) and the
preceding Imams’.
Kulayni has reported
in the beginning of the fourth century of Hijrah in his work Al-Kafi, seventeen
different traditions on the Twelve Imams, while Sheikh Muhammad bin Ali Saduq,
who came after half a century, reported thirty-five traditions on the issue, in
his book ‘Ikmal al-Din’. These were complemented by another scholar-Muhammad
bin Ali Al-Khazzaz at the end of the fourth century, in his work ‘Kifayat
al-Athar fi al-Nass ala al-A’imah al-Ithna Ashar, by narrating two hundred
traditions.
The origin of this
theory, according to the Shiite historian Mas’udi in his ‘Al-Tanbih wa
al-Ishraf’-was the book written by Salim bin Qays al-Hilali, which appeared in
the fourth (4th) century, by an author said to be one of the
companions of Imam Ali bin Abi Talib (peace be upon him). There were a number
of Hadiths in that work ascribed to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him)
and the Imams from Ahl al-Bayt, that indicate the names of the twelve Imams.
This theory was
forced to abandon the Shiite and Imamate history , and the issue of ambiguity
as regards the text, and the will, so also the confusion and perplexity of the
Imamate Shiites in identifying the new Imam. It also has to bypass the case of
‘bada’ (change of opinion or will), which came up twice in the time of Imam
Sadiq and Imam Mahdi.The claim that this idea was existing from the time of the
Messenger of Allah(peace be upon him) , this was despite the general admission
regarding the birth of the Imamate theory in the beginning of the second
century of Hijrah on the hands of Hisham bin Al-Hakam, Mumin al-Taq and Hisham
bin Salim al-Jawaliqi.
Saduq reported the
objection of the Zaydite Shiites on the twelve Imams, and their statement that:
The narration that shows that the Imams are twelve only was a statement
fabricated by the Imamate Shiism recently, and they produced many false Hadiths
in that regard. They buttressed their position by pointing to the fact that the
Shiites used to be divided to several sects after the death of each Imam and
lack of knowledge of the next Imam. As they also point to the Idea of 'bada' (change of opinion) as regards
Isma’il and Muhammad bin Ali, which contradicts the claim of a pre-determined
list of names of the Imams. The death of Zurarah without his knowing who will
be the Imam after Sadiq is another evidence. Saduq responded to Zaydites
saying: “ The Imamate Shiites did not say that the entire Shiites knew the twelve
Imams. He did not deny that Zurrah was not aware of the Hadith. But he later
took into consideration the status of Zurarah, and the impossibility of his
being ignorant of any Hadith of this nature, being the greatest disciple of
Imam Sadiq. He therefore changed (his mind) and said: Zurarah might have
concealed that, as a form of taqiyyah (insinuation). He later on abandoned his
views again after little time, and said: ‘ Kadhim has required of him to give
himself to Allah, for his lack of knowledge of the Imam, because anyone who
doubts him has left the religion of Allah.” (5)
ATTEMPTING TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF
CHILDHOOD
The
Twelver-Imam doctrine was built on very strict and uncompromising principles,
which makes it a condition that inheritance has to be vertical, even if the
Imam has to be a small child. It puts aside the moderate Imamate doctrine (Al
-Fathiyyah), that allows the Imamate of two brothers, if the first Imam was
barren or his issue was still small (at the time of his death). This might be
due the inception of the Twelver- Imam after the period of the Leaders of Ahl
al-Bayt with tens of years. It was never present with the Imams. Like wise the
earlier Shiites—so as to interact with them and perceive the extent of their
ability to react in the childhood days.
The leaders of the Twelver-Imam doctrine
found themselves confronting the Quran, which advises controlling and taking
care of the child till he reaches the age of maturity, where it says: “ And try
orphans (as regards their intelligence) until they reach the age of marriage;
if then you find sound judgment in them, release their property to them.”
As a resolution of this problem they accepted the Imams from the general import of the verse. Sheikh Mufid said: ‘ If someone says: “ O you Imamate Shiites why do you say that you believe in twelve Imams--- and you know that among them (the Imams) there was one whom his father left, while he was a small child, who has not reached the age of puberty, and is not even near that age, like Abu Ja’far Muhammad bin Ali bin Musa, his father died while he was only seven years old. So also your so-called Qaim, whose age at the time of the death of his father, according to many, was only five years old. We have known through the common practice of all times that anyone of that age would not have reached puberty, nor comes near it. Allah, the Exalted has said: “ and try orphans (as regards their intelligence) until they reach the age of marriage; if then you find sound judgment in them, release their property to them.” If Allah the most high has made it compulsory to take care of the wealth of these two souls, because of his injunctions on all orphans, it become invalid for them to be Imams. This is because the Imam is responsible for the creation in all affairs, this worldly and otherworldly. It is not valid that the custodian of the wealth of Allah from charity Khums (one-fifths), the one trusted on the Shariah and all injunctions, one who is the Imam(leader) of fuqaha (jurists), judges, and rulers, one who takes cares of a great number of intelligent people in different sectors, will be the one who has no control even a single pence from his personal wealth, one not trusted even to think for himself, one being taken care of due to his tender age, one of lower intelligence, due to the discrepancy, contradiction and possibility of that. This evidence show the invalidity of especially the Imamate schools. As a response… Allah, the Exalted has denied any excuse on the perfection of the one on whom he has imposed the Imamate and has demonstrated the infallibility of the one appointed as a leader. He has explained through both analogical and revealed evidences, the Imamate of these two Imams. That necessitates their being exempted from the general orphans, to whom the statement was directed.
He also added,” The Imamate Shiism is not having any remorse due to its doctrines, especially the verse on the control (of orphans' wealth), due to rational evidence, to be accepted unanimously as I will mention… that is, there is no difference in the Ummah that the usage of this verse is restricted to those with lower intelligence, with no perfection that necessitates solace. It is also not to be applied to one who possesses of intelligence what those attaining the age of puberty possess, so it is invalid to apply it to the Imams.”
Mufid did attempt to deny the evidence of generality, and the generality of the verse of controlling (the wealth of a minor orphan), in order to free him from any blame so he pioneered a new trend in Juristic research. He said: Restriction can happen on a statement, but it cannot occur on common reasoning…. Reason necessitates perfection and infallibility on the generality of the Imams. If evidence has indicated the imamate of these two souls the verse will have to be restricted to other then them without doubt… Even though generalization has no form in our view, so it becomes necessary to encompass the genus with the same term. That will necessitate evidence accompanied to it. So anytime it becomes devoid of evidence, it becomes imperative to abstain (from any judgment)… There is no evidence to show the generalization of this verse.” (6)
Despite the claim of Mufid that there is difference (among scholars) as regards the attributes of small Imams as a demand with importunity… and he transcends the serious differences on them, among the Imamate Shiites, he attempted to bring something entirely new, and not yet established… that is by attempting to establish exception nature for the small Imams based on the issue of infallibility and imamate, that are yet to be established (with regard to them). This is nothing other than restricting the Qur'anic injunction by means of conjecture… It is clear that Sheikh Mufid gave his conjecture obtained from philosophy, the term of reason: He also claimed the existence of a text on the Imamate of Jawwad based on traditions from single narrators, as he also claim the existence of a consensus, which has no effect neither with the Shiites, nor the general Muslims on the Imamate of Jawwad, hadi and the rest of the imams. He then restricted the generalization of the Qumran… As it that is not sufficient, he denied the general import of the verse on controlling the orphan’s wealth, to exclude the children Imams.
Though the philosophical conjectural evidences and weak conflicting single narrator traditions, cannot disprove the generalization in the Qur'an nor restrict it, or restrict the general injunction, historical realities deny the existence of any special case where the existence of any special case where the Imam was a small child. The history of Shiism points that: Imam Jawwad for example gave his will to his son Ali Hadi, through Abdullah bin Musawir, and made an overseer on his inheritance, including gardens, wealth expenditures, slaves e.t.c, till the time when Ali bin Muhammad became matured. He wrote the will and made Ahmad bin Khalid a witness to it, and that was on Sunday 3rd Dhul Hijjah, 220 A. H. Mufid however, was eager to carry on the intellectual debate seriously after more than 100 years of its inception, and without him witnessing any Imam during his childhood, so that he establishes something on their personal situation, and so as to know if they possess the qualifications of unnatural exception? Sheikh Mufid will not refer to history so as to establish his doctrine on the basis of reality… He feels satisfied with late and abstract philosophical theorization, after a period of 100 years … He follows by that an unscientific method to reach the truth.
TRANSCENDING THE PROBLEM OF BADA (CHANGE OF WILL)
If the process of fabricating narrations was not a difficult or an impossible act, transcending the problem of ‘bada’ (change of will) was a very difficult task. The pivots of the Twelver- Imam Shiites who were claiming that there was a predetermined list of names of the twelve Imams, prepared long before that, tried to interpret bade that it is ‘bada’ (change of will) from Allah, and the claim of the loss of the command affair on the Imamate of Kadhim and Askari and its reappearance after the death of Ismail and Sayyid Muhammad Sheikh Saduq has however, vehemently refused to admit the existence of the Hadith on ‘bada’ and said, while addressing Zaydism: “Why do you say that Ja’far bin Muhammad has appointed (by text), Ismail as the Imam? What was that narration? And who was behind it? How was it received? This was merely a narration borne by some people believing in the Imamate of Ismail. It has no basis in his statement:”
“Nothing makes Allah (to change His will) like the case of my son Ismail. He says: Nothing has appeared to Allah as it appears in Ismail my son, as He received him in my lifetime to demonstrate that he was not the Imam after me. The Bada being attributed to the Imamate Shiites means the appearance of His affair. (8)
All of Saffar, Kulayni, Mufid and Tusi have however reported from Abu Hisham Dawud bin Qasim Al-Jafari, a Hadith which establishes the occurrence of ‘bada’ regarding Ismail and Sayyid Muhammad. It came clearly in that: “ Sadiq pointed to Ismail and Hadi pointed to Muhammad but later changed him with and Muhammad (Askari).”(9)
Saffar, Kulayni, Mufid and Tusi did narrate a tradition from Imam Hadi who says to his son Hassan: “O my son generate them gratitude to Allah as he has generated a new affair regarding you.” (10)
Saduq has overlooked such traditions and has relieved himself of the task of disputing and refuting them and has completely neglected them, even though, they have been agreed upon by the earlier and later scholars of Hadith.
Despite the frank nature of such traditions on the issue of ‘bada’ as regards the Imamate, Sheikh Mufid tried to re- interprete the meaning of ‘‘bada’’ on the basis of the change in the knowledge of Allah or His will, which appears in the word generate to another meaning of ‘appearance.’ He says: the meaning in the statement of the Imamate Shiites: that Allah has changed His will in such and such, it means: It appears to Him in such and such, and the meaning of ‘appears to Him’ is appears from Him. So what we believe in the meaning of ‘bada’: is appearance, this is limited to what appears of action whose occurrence is beyond human observation/sight. (11)
In the same way Sheikh Tusi tried to re-interprete the word ‘bada’ by saying: ‘hat came in the tradition of his statement ‘Allah had another will in that’ means; ‘It appears from Allah that”, people were thinking that Ismail bin Ja'far was the Imam after his father, but when he died, they knew the invalidity of that, and they became certain of the Imamate of Musa. In the same manner, they were thinking of the Imamate of Muhammad bin Ali after his father, but when he died in the lifetime of his father, they recognized the futility of what they thought. He said: “ When Muhammad died, the affair of Allah regarding him appeared, and that he was not appointed as the Imam, as it appeared in (the case of) Ismail in a similar way. Not that there was a text on him, and it appeared to him later for someone else, for that is not permissible in Allah’s sight, who knows everything and all consequences. (12).
Sheikh Tusi did emphasize for the second time on, the issue of Imamate will not accept ‘bada’ since it will lead to loosing confidence in anything from Allah. (13)
Sheikh Ali bin Babawaih Saduq has refused to accept ‘bada’ in naming the Imams and considered such like prayer, and fasting, which can never be abrogated. He said: It will not be on Allah to change (His will) in the Imam, in naming him or his appearance. What is the difference, if I say: ‘the Imamate is one of the five laws (Shariah)’ from one who accept ‘bada’ in prayer and fasting and the remaining four laws since the authority for the four is one, that is the Imamate. If it is possible that Allah abrogate the source of the law, then it is possible to abrogate its branch. I seek refuge in Allah from advocating the abrogation of Shariah and the changing of religion, after Allah has made Muhammad (peace be upon him) the last of the prophets and his Shariah the last of all laws, and has made adhering to his religion and Shariah till the day of Judgment and the Resurrection:( 14)
Ibn Babawaih also attempted to interpret the narrated traditions on bada (insinuation) after noticing the nonpossibility of a predetermined list of names of the Imams. He said: “ Imamate cannot be changed …glorified is Allah that he places as leaders of his servants, those who go contrary to his command and change their ways; or that his wisdom will propose a man fro the protection of Islam and that he will deviate be swayed away from it will place it (Imamate) in the one that will be affected mentally due to old age and long life, exalted is Allah high above all that they say.” (15)
In reality, if the Imamate is from Allah it will be impossible to notice ‘bada’(non-fulfillment) in it, and it will be difficult to interprete ‘bada’ even with appearance, for that will create a kind of confusion in the Shiite circles, and they will loose confidence in the words of their Imams, as it happened in history.
But instead of the theologians studying the traditions of Ahl al-Bayt and the historical facts that emphasize that some Imams pointed to their sons being Imams, but then they died in their lifetimes, and then they pointed to others.They concluded from that,that the Imamate is not from Allah, as the leaders of the Ahl al-Bayt have been saying. Instead of this the theologians (Mutakallimun) from Twelver- Imam Shiites, attempted interpreting ‘bada’ in a straining manner so as to conform to the Imamate theory. They were, however forced to admit the ambiguity in the texts as regards some Imams, and also the lack of knowledge of the Shiites and some of their leaders (imams) of the pre-determined list of their names.
Sheikh Baqir Sharif Al-Qurashi says in his book 'Hayat al-Imam Hassan al-Askari'…Anyhow these narrations were not related to ‘bada’, they only indicate that Allah has brought to the open the Imamate of Hassan Askari which was hidden before to the Shiites.”
In addition to the issue of 'bada' which clearly contradicts the existence of predetermined list of names of the twelve Imams, there were also some traditions in the book of Salim bin Qays al-Hilali and ‘al-Kafi’ of Kulayni, which mention that the number of Imams is thirteen (13). On the basis of that a sect has emerged called ‘Thirteen-Imam’ Shiites under the leadership of the grand son of Uthman bin Said Al-Umari, i.e Ahmad bin Hibat al-Lah al-Katib.
Due to this the doctrine of ‘twelve Imams’ was not initially accepted without difficulty among the Imamate Shiites. Saduq has bluntly said: “ We do not accept that (from the devotional point), except by confessing the existence of twelve Imams, and believing what the twelfth mentioned after him.”
Saduq also reported a number of traditions on the likelihood of extending the Imamate after Mahdi, and its not being confined or limited to him. He reported from Imam Ali a tradition on the ambiguity of the situation after the leader (Qaim), and that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) has taken a covenant from him, not to tell anyone about that except Hassan and Hussain. He also said: “Don’t ask of what will happen after that, because my beloved has taken a covenant from me not to tell anyone save my family members.” (17)
Anyhow the Twelver-Imam theory differed from the Imamate doctrine in that the latter revolved around the Imams from Ahl al-Bayt, those living in reality, and it claims that they are more deserving of the rule and Caliphate than the Umayyad and Abbasid rulers. It also believes that Allah appointed the Imams. The Twelver-Imam doctrine on the other hand, revolves around the occult Imam without any trace in life, i.e. the twelfth Imam Muhammad bin Hassan Askari, whom it claims to have been born in mysterious circumstances, and gone into hiding, and would re-appear in future.
The belief in the existence of the twelfth Imam, his occultation and waiting for him, led to the loss of political meaning for the Twelver-Imam doctrine, which in turn led to the withdrawal of the Twelver-Imam Shiism from the political stage and their extinction in the fourth century of Hijrah, giving way to the other Shiite sects like Zaydites and Isma’ilites to occupy the scene.
REFERENCES